Self-healing Materials and Shape Memory Polymers

Self-healing Materials and Shape Memory Polymers Topic Area: self-healing materials, shape memory polymers and flame retardant polymers Emerging Polymer materials       Md Hossion Shovon Introduction: The ability of a nation to harness nature as well as its ability to cope up with the challenges posed by it is determined by its complete knowledge of materials and its ability to develop and produce them for various applications. Advanced Materials are at the heart of many technological developments that touch our lives. Electronic materials for communication and information technology, optical fibers, laser fibers sensors for the intelligent environment, energy materials for renewable energy and environment, light alloys for better transportation, materials for strategic applications and more. Advanced materials have a wider role to play in the upcoming future years because of its multiple uses and can be of a greater help for whole humanity. Emerging technologies are those technical innovations which represent progressive developments within a field for competitive advantage. List of currently emerging technologies, which contains some of the most prominent ongoing developments, a dvances, and Materials Science and Nanotechnology Innovations are Graphene, Fullerene, Conductive Polymers, Metamaterials, Nanomaterials: carbon nanotubes, Superalloy, Lithium-ion batteries, etc. Over the last decade, smart polymeric materials have been used in biochemical sciences in many ways. Since the term, smart polymeric materials encompasses a wide spectrum of different compounds with unique potential for biological applications, Self-healing Polymers: Self-healing polymers are a new class of smart materials that have the capability to repair themselves when they are damaged without the need for detection or repair by manual intervention of any kind. Increasing demand for petroleum feedstocks used to produce polymer and the need for polymeric materials with improved performance in challenging applications continue to drive the need for materials with extended lifetimes. One way to extend the lifetime of a material is to mitigate the mechanism leading to failure. In brittle polymers, failure occurs through crack formation and propagation (1,2) and the ability to repair these cracks when they are still very small will prevent further propagation thus extending the lifetime of the material. Emerging self-healing technologies designed to give polymeric materials the capability to arrest crack propagation at an early stage thereby preventing catastrophic failures will go a long way in helping to increase the scope of applications of the se materials. With the need for autonomic repair of materials without external intervention thus evident, more recent research has focused on developing fully self-healing systems. One approach to the design of such systems employs the compartmentalization of a reactive healing agent, which is then incorporated into a composite material. Thus, when a crack propagates through the material, it causes the release of the healing agent from the compartment in which it is stored into the crack plane where it solidifies and repairs the material. The first basic application of this approach consisted of an epoxy matrix with suspended glass capillaries filled with either cyanoacrylate or a two-part epoxy resin. When a crack propagated through the cured epoxy matrix, the glass capillaries were fractured and the cyanoacrylate monomer or the two-part epoxy generally referred to as healing agents, were released into the crack plane where they reacted and polymerized. A significant recovery of the mechanical properties of the samples after they were allowed to heal suggests that the cracked material was effectively repaired by the polymerized healing agent. Since the healing requires only crack propagation as the trigger for the healing mechanism, it represents a truly autonomic or self-healing material. While a successful demonstration of self-healing, the labor-intensive process of manually filling capillaries and distributing them evenly throughout the matrix make this approach unsuitable for scale-up. Shape-memory Polymers: Shape-memory polymers are an emerging class of active polymers that have the dual-shape capability. They can change their shape in a predefined way from shape A to shape B when exposed to an appropriate stimulus. While shape B is given by the initial processing step, shape A is determined by applying a process called programming. The shape-memory research was initially founded on the thermally induced dual-shape effect. This concept has been extended to other stimuli by either indirect thermal actuation or direct actuation by addressing stimuli-sensitive groups on the molecular level. Finally, polymers are introduced that can be multifunctional. Besides their dual-shape capability, these active materials are biofunctional or biodegradable. Potential applications for such materials as active medical devices are highlighted. Shape-memory polymers are dual-shape materials belonging to the group of actively moving polymers. They can actively change from a shape A to a shape B. Shape A is a temporary shape that is obtained by mechanical deformation and subsequent fixation of that deformation. This process also determines the change of shape shift, resulting in shape B, which is the permanent shape. In shape-memory polymers reported so far, heat or light has been used as the stimulus. Using irradiation with infrared light, application of electric fields, alternating magnetic fields, or immersion in water, indirect actuation of the shape memory effect has also been realized. The shape-memory effect only relies on the molecular architecture and does not require a specific chemical structure in the repeating units. Therefore, intrinsic material properties, e.g. mechanical properties, can be adjusted to the need of specific applications by variation of molecular parameters, such as the type of monomer or the comonomer ratio. An example of a cross-linked polymer network synthesized by polyaddition of monofunctional monomers with low molecular weight or oligomeric cross-linkers has been realized in polyurethanes by the addition of trimethyl owl to the reaction mixture. The reaction of tetra-functional silanes, working as net points, with oligomeric silanes, which work as spacers and to which two distinct benzoate-based mesogenic groups have been attached, results in a formation of a main-chain smectic-C elastomer38. In contrast to other liquid-crystalline elastomers, which display a shape-changing behavior and have been compared to shape-memory polymers recently, these elastomers have shape-memory properties. The cross-linking process during synthesis defines the permanent shape. The shape-memory effect is triggered by the thermal transition of the liquid-crystalline domains. In the programming process, the polymer network is heated to the isotropic state of the liquid crystalline domains, stretched or twisted, and then cooled below the clearing transition temperature of the smectic-C mesogens. Upon reheating over this clearing transition, the permanent shape can be recovered. In contrast to shape-changing liquid crystalline elastomer systems, thes e polymers display shape-memory behavior because the liquid crystalline moieties work as a switch. In shape-changing liquid-crystalline elastomers, the molecular movement of the single liquid crystals is converted into a macroscopic movement Another class of thermoplastic shape memory polymers with Trans = Tg are polyesters. In copolyesters based on poly(Ɇº-caprolactone) and poly (butylene terephthalate), the poly (butylene terephthalate) segments act as physical cross-linkers25. The shape-memory capability can also be added to a polymer using a polymer-analogous reaction. A polymer-analogous reaction is the application of a standard organic reaction (like the reduction of a ketone to an alcohol) to a polymer having several of these reactive groups. An example is the polymer-analogous reduction of a polyketone with NaBH4/THF, which results in a poly(ketone-co-alcohol). The polyketones are synthesized by late transition metal catalyzed polymerization of propene, hex-1-ene, or a mixture of propane and hex-1-ene with CO. The Tg of this polymer is directly related to the degree of reduction, which can be adjusted by the amount of NaBH4/THF. The most promising shape-memory material is a partly reduced poly (ethylene -co-propane-co-carbon oxide), which displayed a phase-separated morphology with hard microcrystalline ethylene/CO-rich segments within a softer amorphous polyketone ethylene-propene/CO-rich matrix. The crystalline domains of this material work as physical cross-linkers. This results in an elastic behavior above Tg because the glass transition temperature (Trans = Tg) is related to the switching phase. Partial reduction of the material allows control of Tg, which can be adjusted from below room temperature to 75 °C. Flame-retardant Polymers: Fire-safe polymers are polymers that are resistant to degradation at high temperatures. There is need for fire-resistant polymers in the construction of small, enclosed spaces such as skyscrapers, boats, and airplane cabins. In these tight spaces, ability to escape in the event of a fire is compromised, increasing fire risk. In fact, some studies report that about 20% of victims of airplane crashes are killed not by the crash itself but by ensuing fires. Fire-safe polymers also find application as adhesives in aerospace materials, insulation for electronics and in military materials such as canvas tenting. Some fire-safe polymers naturally exhibit an intrinsic resistance to decomposition, while others are synthesized by incorporating fire-resistant additives and fillers. Current research in developing fire-safe polymers is focused on modifying various properties of the polymers such as ease of ignition, rate of heat release, and the evolution of smoke and toxic gases. Standard methods for testing polymer flammability vary among countries; in the United States common fire tests include the UL 94 small-flame test, the ASTM E 84 Steiner Tunnel, and the ASTM E 622 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) smoke chamber. Research on developing fire-safe polymers with more desirable properties is concentrated at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and at the Federal Aviation Administration where a long-term research program on developing fire-safe polymers was begun in 1995. The Center for UMass/Industry Research on Polymers (CUMIRP) was established in 1980 in Amherst, MA as a concentrated cluster of scientists from both academia and industry for the purpose of polymer science and engineering research. Controlling the flammability of different materials has been a subject of interest since 450 B.C. when Egyptians attempted to reduce the flammability of wood by soaking it in potassium aluminum sulfate (alum). Research on fire-retardant polymers was bolstered by the need for new types of synthetic polymers in World War II. The combination of a halogenated paraffin and antimony oxide was found to be successful as a fire retardant for canvas tenting. Synthesis of polymers, such as polyesters, with fire retardant monomers were also developed around this time.. Additives are divided into two basic types depending on the interaction of the additive and polymer. Reactive flame retardants are compounds that are chemically built into the polymer. They usually contain heteroatoms. Additive flame retardants, on the other hand, are compounds that are not covalently bound to the polymer; the flame retardant and the polymer are just physically mixed together. Only a few elements are being widely used in this field: aluminum, phosphorus, nitrogen, antimony, chlorine, bromine, and in specific applications magnesium, zinc and carbon. One prominent advantage of the flame retardants (FRs) derived from these elements is that they are relatively easy to manufacture. The most important flame retardants systems used act either in the gas phase where they remove the high energy radicals H and OH from the flame or in the solid phase, where they shield the polymer by forming a charred layer and thus protect the polymer from being attacked by oxygen and heat. Fl ame retardants based on bromine or chlorine, as well as a number of phosphorus compounds act chemically in the gas phase and are very efficient. Others only act in the condensed phase such as metal hydroxides (aluminum trihydrate, or ATH, magnesium hydroxide, or MDH, and boehmite), metal oxides and salts (zinc borate and zinc oxide, zinc hydroxystannate), as well as expandable graphite and some nanocomposites (see below). Phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are also effective in the condensed phase, and as they also may act in the gas phase, they are quite efficient flame retardants. Overviews of the main flame retardants families, their mode of action and applications are given in. Besides providing satisfactory mechanical properties and renewability, natural fibers are easier to obtain and much cheaper than man-made materials. Moreover, they are more environmentally friendly. Recent research focuses on application of different types of fire retardants during the manufacturing proces s as well as applications of fire retardants (especially intumescent coatings) at the finishing stage. A good example for a very efficient phosphorus-based flame retardant system acting in the gas and condensed phases is aluminum diethyl phosphonate in conjunction with synergists such as melamine polyphosphate (MPP) and others. These phosphonates are mainly used to flame retard polyamides (PA) and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) for flame retarded applications in electrical engineering/electronics (EE). These are well illustrated by the investigations on glass fiber reinforced polyamide 66 flames retarded with red phosphorus (PA 66-GF/Pr), which demonstrate these charming characteristics Figure 1 shows the thermal and thermo-oxidative decomposition of PA 66-GF/Pr in comparison to PA 66-GF, as well as the performance in cone calorimeter experiments. For both materials, decomposition is characterized by at least three different processes, which strongly overlap for PA 66-GF and are clearly separated for PA 66-GF/Pr. Some decomposition processes are shifted to lower temperatures so that the decomposition region is broadened. There is only a small increase in thermal stability for the final decomposition step. Thermal decomposition changes from a one-step decomposition to a two-step decomposition characteristic. In fire tests, PA 66-GF/Pr is an effective charging material, achieving a clear reduction in THE and HRR in the cone calorimeter, as well as the highest self-extinction classifi cation V-0 in the UL 94, whereas in the case of PA 66-GF all of the polymeric material is consumed so that only the glass fibers remain. Thermo-oxidative decomposition of PA 66 was concluded to occur in cone calorimeter experiments before ignition when a black skin is built up, and during afterglow after flame-out, when a further decrease in mass occurs accompanied by CO production. During the forced-flaming between ignition and flame-out, a stable flame rules out a major influence of oxygen on the decomposition during pyrolysis. The mass loss after flaming combustion and the burning time are used to estimate an average effective pyrolysis temperature. This temperature was estimated by the necessary equivalent isothermal thermos gravimetry with the same mass loss in the burning time. This is a very rough estimation, of course, since the sample in the cone calorimeter, which is characterized by a temperature profile developing over time, is described by a constant temperature independent of place and time. However, since the specimens investigated were rather thin (2.8 mm) and contained inert filler, and because the fire residue was rather homogenous, the values summarized in Table 3 reasonably estimate the effect. The pyrolysis temperature for PA 66-GF is controlled by the decomposition temperature of the polymer and remains more or less constant for all irradiations used. The calculated temperature is higher than-but still close to-the temperature characteristic for the maximum mass loss rate in thermos grav imetry, and the temperature increases slightly with increasing irradiation. The PA 66 is consumed nearly completely by the pyrolysis zone running through the sample. The approximated pyrolysis temperature of PA 66-GF/Pr is characterized by the decomposition temperature of the first decomposition step and thus crucially lower than the temperatures concluded for PA 66-GF. Summary: The development and characterization of self-healing synthetic polymeric materials have been inspired by biological systems in which damage triggers an autonomic healing response. This is an emerging and fascinating area of research that could significantly extend the working life and safety of the polymeric components for a broad range of applications The past decade has witnessed remarkable advances in stimuli-responsive shape memory polymers (SMPs) with potential applications in biomedical devices, aerospace, textiles, civil engineering, bionics engineering, energy, electronic engineering, and household products. Shape memory polymer composites (SMPCs) have further enhanced and broadened the applications of shape memory polymers. In addition to reinforcement, SMPCs can enable or enhance thermal stimuli-active effects, novel shape memory effect, and new functions. Many thermal stimuli-responsive effects have been achieved such as electroactive effect, magnetic-active effect, water- active effect, and photoactive effect. The typical examples of novel shape memory effects are multiple shape memory effect, spatially controlled shape memory effect, and two-way shape memory effects. In addition, new functions of SMPCs have been observed and systemically studied such as stimuli-memory effect and self-healing. Flame retardancy of polymeric materials is conducted to provide fire protection to flammable consumer goods, as well as to mitigate fire growth in a wide range of fires. Incorporating flame-resistant additives into polymers became a common and relatively cheap way to reduce the flammability of polymers, while synthesizing intrinsically fire-resistant polymers has remained a more expensive alternative, although the properties of these polymers are usually more efficient at deterring combustion References: Fame, Fire and Materials http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com A review of stimuli-responsive shape memory polymer composites http://www.sciencedirect.com Emerging Areas of Materials Science and Nanotechnology http://materialsscience.conferenceseries.com Schartel, Bernhard Phosphorus-based Flame Retardancy Mechanisms-Old Hat or a Starting Point for Future Development Braun, U.; Balabanovich, A.I.; Schartel, B.; Knoll, U.; Artner, J.; Ciesielski, M.; Dà ¶ring, M.; Perez, R.; Sandler, J.K.W.; et al. Influence of the Oxidation State of Phosphorus on the Decomposition and Fire Behaviour of Flame-Retarded Epoxy Resin Composites. Polymer 2006, 47, 8495-8508 Perez, R.; Sandler, J.K.W.; et al. Influence of the Oxidation State of Phosphorus on the Decomposition and Fire Behaviour of Flame-Retarded Epoxy Resin Composites. Polymer 2006, 47, 8495-8508 Zhang, H. Fire-Safe Polymers and Polymer Composites, Federal Aviation Administration technical report; U.S. Department of Transportation: Washington, D.C., 2004. Kumar, D.; Gupta, A. D.; Khullar, M. Heat-resistant thermosetting polymers based on a novel tetrakisaminophenoxycyclotriphosphazene. J. Polym. Sci. Part A: Polym. Chem. 1993, 31 (11), 2739-2745.

Koreanovelas: Now a Better Media than Local Teleseryes?

Eventually, some would start to watch every episode of these shows, seeing it as â€Å"something new'. In contrary, Korean dramas, locally known as Cornflakes, have been aired in our country for more than a decade now. In fact, a lot of people grew up watching them. These shows are really nothing new to us, but why do we patronize them? Why do a lot of people prefer them over our own shows? It's mainly because we're seeing something different, better and fresh in Cornflakes.Cornflakes are undeniably one of the latest trends in our country, making us one of the places greatly hit by the throng current of the so-called Halley wave or Korean wave, that refers to the rapid spread of Korean entertainment in Asia. The Halley wave consists of mainly Cornflakes, Korean pop (Kop) music, fashion, cosmetics and home appliances, though it is believed that Cornflakes are the ones that started it all. Cornflakes have reached our country in the year 2003, Bright Girl being the first show of this t ype to be shown.Cornflakes aren't an instant hit here in the Philippines. It only reached the first peak of its popularity through the show entitled Endless Love. The said drama is greatly known through the say recognition of the names Johnny and Jenny, the Pipelined names of the characters of the story. This was greatly followed by the success of Lovers in Paris, Full House, Jewel in the Palace, Stairway to Heaven, and many more. Since then, Filipinos have been keeping an eye out for the next Cornflakes to be shown in the country.Though we are greatly aware of the popularity of Cornflakes in our country, there has been no concrete idea or concept on why these have gained a great number of Filipinos patronizing them. (For You In Full Blossom, 201 1) There are two possible reasons behind the fast entry ND widespread patronizing of Cornflakes in the Philippines: (1 ) Cultural globalization of Korea and (2) Cultural neo-colonialism of Korea in the Philippines.According to weeklies , cu ltural globalization is the rapid movement of different ideas, attitudes, and values across national borders that results to the standardization of cultural expressions in different countries. The Halley wave is one example of cultural globalization. Now that it is considered as a big part of Koreans export materials, their culture and ideas involved in the wave are rapidly spread all throughout the globe, specially in its neighboring Asian countries. Neo-colonialism, on the other hand, refers to an extension or maintenance of influence of a country over another (Merriam-Webster, 2014).In a study conducted by Aimer Associable and Johnson Eosin of the Mindanao State University entitled â€Å"Koreans Philippine Invasion†, it stated that the Philippines is now under the neo- colonization of South Korea. It is described as a form of colonialism that uses diverse art and culture to influence another country or area. Such colonialism is described as enjoyable and exciting and not b loody r catastrophic and that is the reason why Filipinos are not fighting against it, but instead are patronizing it. (Associable, Eosin, 2013) As part of our culture, Filipinos are very accommodating, not only towards new people but also towards new ideas.This is one of the reasons why we welcome the perspectives of other countries easily and without hesitation and thus forming the idea that â€Å"anything foreign is good†. Even before Cornflakes reached the Philippines, there has been a number of foreign TV shows that have been aired here in the country, such as Marimba (1996) from Latin America, and Meteor Garden (2003) from Taiwan. For You In Blossom, 2012). Popularity in our country mainly refers to the number of viewers of the show, and the shows mentioned were considered successful due to the high number of followers that watched them.In the same way as people in the Philippines welcomed Marimba and Meteor Garden, we accepted Cornflakes with open arms, even though the ideas from their shows are very different from ours and new to us. For example, Philippines was never an imperial country and the idea of a kingdom or an empire was not ordinary to us. But Cornflakes have offered to us stories of Koreans different misdoings and dynasties. Since this concept was not ordinary, it lead to people becoming more curious of it, budding questions like, â€Å"What does it look like? ‘ and â€Å"How does it work? ‘ and they watch the new shows to gain answers.In terms of new people, Cornflakes have offered to us new actors and actresses to idealize. Idealization refers to the excessive admiration of or devotion to a person (Merriam-Webster, 2014) and it has been a part of the behavior of Filipinos who love watching television to idealize. Idealization, in simple terms, means imitating their idols' way of dressing and speaking and itching their every move and this is very evident nowadays, especially to the teenage generation. We can see people now on the streets wearing clothing and (sometimes) hair with cheerful colors, imitating their Korean idols.Not only are those, but people also are now very fond Of eating Korean food and some also learn the Korean language, also known as Handful, which are commonly seen and heard in Cornflakes. In this whole process of cultural globalization and neo-colonization, Koreans striver to improve a lot of aspects in their dramas. Now, its not only because Cornflakes are a part of the Halley wave. It is now about having the high quality sets, artists and plots that piques the interest of the eyes of the Filipinos.Though both of the dramas from Cornflakes and our local telemeters are good sources of entertainment and cultural knowledge, Korean dramas are better than Filipino dramas in terms of the different elements involved in the production of these television series such as the story line and pace, staging and blocking of scenes, and the actors and actresses that portray the drama's char acters. Despite the growing popularity of Cornflakes, their ratings on our local Hansel have remained low, relative to our local telemeters.

Essay Topics for Walt Whitman to a Stranger Reviews & Guide

Essay Topics for Walt Whitman to a Stranger Reviews & Guide The Lost Secret of Essay Topics for Walt Whitman to a Stranger He trusts that each and every event has a place and time and that's a miracle excessively. If you would like to observe the more R-rated ones, you will have to read the book yourself. The collection is just one of the most well-known works in American literature. Open also indicates the process by which this sort of poetry is made. The work only lasted a number of months. She has been a poem-a-dayer for more than 15 decades. Before you commence writing, you should have to clear the notion of the job. But there are some main ideas you need to know about before starting. The New Fuss About Essay Topics for Walt Whitman to a Stranger As a consequence, his father struggled through a set of attempts to recoup a number of that earlier wealth for a farmer, carpenter and real estate speculator. Instead, the simple fact he used an endearing term because of his mother as opposed to just `mother' shows he isn't an unfeeling individual. The Democratic Self Whitman celebrates the frequent man by producing a unified, overarching notion of the self that applies to individuals also. The important aim of this book is to demonstrate the mind of a murderer. Moreover, the direct statement of the previous line certainly addresses the human speaker and the human reader. These strangers are drawn to one another in spite of the reality that there's no dialogue between them. It's written in a manner that someone could observe this individual staring, infatuated via this stranger. For him, there isn't any single person that stands alone with their own ideas and feelings. In the event that you were ever searching for a champion of American democracy, poet Walt Whitman might become your guy. Walt Whitman is called bard of democracy and father of completely free verse. She is considered one of the greatest poets in the English language. She is among the most influential poets in the United States, frequently called the father of free verse. The particular interpretation of several of Whitman's major poems could be found in the articles related to those individual poems. It sets the tone for the remainder of the poem. What provides the poem a distinctive touch is the name itself. 1 thing might have been the kindof gay man Whitman was. In Song of Myself there's a feeling that the center can't hold, but Whitman always appears to have an underlying hope in recovery. In this piece, we'll learn more about the meaning of Walt Whitman s Miracles, which will offer you another illustration of what witnessing a miracle means. Whitman brilliantly makes his poem a true extension of the body. The Pain of Essay Topics for Walt Whitman to a Stranger Inside this stanza, he's pointing out that there are several distinctive facets and factors in America as a whole. Within this page, you will discover some terrific analytical essay topics. Ethnomusicology has been defined in many various ways, largely because ethnomusicologists appear to study so many unique subjects. In this manner, many people constitute the individual democracy, a single entity composed of myriad pieces. Prior to making a choice, ensure your objectives are defined. Registration is highly suggested to take total benefit of this Free Essay site. A History of Essay Topics for Walt Whitman to a Stranger Refuted Whitman is thus capturing the stream of unprocessed desires in addition to describing the actions where the flow erupts. You don't have to understand the subject thoroughly, but you have to be interested in it so you can maintain a learning attitude throughout the practice. His focus is still the individual human being driven by these kinds of systems. It is made by the author in compliance with his vision and is permeated with his idea of the planet. It produces a sad and empty atmosphere in their opinion. It's a feeling that's tough to express or accept. He goes to exactly the same cafe daily to eat.

Ethnic Conflicts And Its Effects On Post Colonial Societies

Today, it is hard to imagine how only sixty years ago the world was dominated by European empires. In 1921, 84 percent of the earth’s surface had been colonised since the sixteenth century. There were as many as 168 colonies. By the 1960s, after years of fighting, most Western colonial territories had gained independence. The following decades showed how much the ghost of colonisation still loomed over post-colonial societies though. Around the world today, conflict is found in many areas that were once colonised or controlled by Western European powers. The cause of many of these continuing and uncontrollable conflicts lies in past colonial policies, especially those regarding territorial boundaries, the treatment of indigenous people, the privileging of some groups over others, the unequal distribution of wealth and resources, local governmental infrastructures, and the formation of non-democratic or non-participatory governmental systems. It is therefore essential, if one w ants to understand the causes of these ethnic conflicts, to examine not only the contemporary issues, but also important historical factors such as past colonial policies and their lingering effects. Colonisation was motivated by the European hunger for African resources. The subsequent exploitation of the African people and the uprooting of their spiritual values by Christian missionaries would leave a permanent European stamp on the continent. Colonial states often promoted ethnic rivalry byShow MoreRelated Colonialism and Africa Essays1687 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Modern African states have several problems ranging from corruption, to armed conflict, to stunted structural development. 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